How to Encorage Students Who Workd, Have Family to Take Care Off and Still Make It Throgh School

March 05, 2022 Post a Comment

Abstract

The COVID-19 crisis has forced education systems worldwide to discover alternatives to face-to-face instruction. Equally a result, online education and learning have been used past teachers and students on an unprecedented scale. Since lockdowns – either massive or localised - may exist needed again in the future to respond to new waves of the infection until a vaccine becomes available, it is of utmost importance for governments to identify which policies can maximise the effectiveness of online learning. This policy brief examines the function of students' attitudes towards learning in maximising the potential of online schooling when regular contiguous instruction cannot take place. Since parents and teachers play a key office in supporting students to develop these crucial attitudes, particularly in the current state of affairs, targeted policy interventions should be designed with the aim of reducing the burden on parents and help teachers and schools make the about of digital learning.

Key findings and recommendations:

The current COVID-19 crisis has obliged most education systems to adopt alternatives to face-to-face pedagogy and learning. Many education systems moved activities online, to permit pedagogy to continue despite school closures.
Considering the alternative of no schooling, online schooling has been an important tool to sustain skills development during schoolhouse closures. That existence said, at that place are all the same concerns that online learning may accept been a sub-optimal substitute for contiguous instruction, particularly so in the absence of universal access to infrastructure (hardware and software) and lack of adequate training amidst teachers and students for the unique demands that online teaching learning pose.
Developing strong attitudes towards learning can aid students overcome some of the potential challenges posed past online learning such as, for instance, remaining focused during online classes or maintaining sufficient motivation. They are also crucial in supporting students using information and communications technology (ICT) effectively and making the nigh of new technologies for learning. Positive attitudes towards learning, self-regulation and intrinsic motivation to learn play an important role in improving performance at school in general, but may be especially of import should online learning go along.
Students' attitudes and dispositions are influenced to a peachy degree by the support they receive from families and teachers and by the function models they are exposed to. Different forms of support from families and teachers, including parental emotional back up and teacher enthusiasm, are found to be of import for the development of positive attitudes towards learning and tin can ensure that students larn the attitudes and dispositions that can maximise their ability to make the most of online learning opportunities. Yet, some families and teachers may struggle to provide such support - especially during the COVID-19 crisis - because of a lack of time, insufficient digital skills or lack of curricular guidelines.
Instruction systems should aim to strengthen date between schools and parents in order to better information and guidance to parents on constructive practices for supporting their children's learning. At the same time, teachers demand support to contain technology effectively into their didactics practices and methods and help students overcome some of the difficulties that are associated with this form of learning environment. Supporting teachers' training well-nigh the utilize of digital resources for pedagogical practice and promoting pedagogy practices adapted to this context is primal to ensure that ICT is leveraged finer.

As a response to the COVID-19 crisis, many countries effectually the globe closed schools, colleges and universities to halt the spread of the virus. According to data from UNESCO, the peak in school closures was registered at the beginning of April 2020, when around ane.6 billion learners were afflicted across 194 countries, bookkeeping for more than 90% of total enrolled learners (UNESCO, 2020[1]). The sudden closure of schools meant that education policy makers, school principals and teachers had to find alternatives to contiguous instruction in order to guarantee children's right to didactics. Many systems take adopted online education (and learning) on an unprecedented calibration, often in combination with widespread remote learning materials such as tv or radio. Until effective vaccines or therapeutics for the novel Coronavirus become bachelor, it is likely that schooling may keep to be disrupted. Even if the worst case scenario of a second wave of the outbreak were not to materialise, localised and temporary schoolhouse closures may yet be needed to contain transmission of COVID-19. For example, children coming in contact with infected individuals may be required to self-isolate and the lack of adequate spaces for them to attend classes or of qualified educators to be deployed in those circumstances will force sure schools to prefer blended models to guarantee social distancing. This has already been the case, for instance, in Germany, where, merely two weeks later re-opening, some schools were closed again over Coronavirus infections. Confronting this uncertain backdrop, it is therefore of import to identify which policies tin can maximise the effectiveness of online teaching and learning.

In spite of being a desirable selection compared to no schooling – which would accept caused major interruptions in pupil learning with possible long-lasting consequences for the affected cohorts (Burgess, 2020[2]; Hanushek and Woessmann, 2020[3]) - the sudden switch to using digital education may accept led to sub-optimal results if compared to a concern every bit usual in-presence instruction, as teachers, students and schools all had to unexpectedly adjust to a novel situation. This policy brief takes stock of some of the difficulties encountered by students, teachers and schools while adapting to online learning in order to understand how remote schooling can exist improved further, should online learning become necessary to foreclose widespread transmission.

The first business concern which has arisen is that online learning is only available to children that have access to a broadband connectedness at home that is fast plenty to back up online learning. While network operators have mainly been successful to maintain services and efficiently utilise pre-existing capacity during phases of lockdown (OECD, 2020[4]), at that place are still geographical areas and population groups that are underserved, especially in rural and remote areas and among low-income groups. For example, in many OECD countries, fewer than half of rural households are located in areas where fixed broadband at sufficient speeds is available. In add-on, children need to have access to devices such equally computers and the necessary software to participate in online learning activities, which is often a claiming for lower‑income households.

For those students that are connected, the second concern is that certain students have not been able to receive a sufficient number of hours of educational activity. For example, in the United Kingdom, 71% of state schoolhouse children received no or less than one daily online lesson (Light-green, 2020[5]), while in Germany only half dozen% of students had online lessons on a daily basis and more than one-half had them less than once a week (Woessmann et al., 2020[6]). Some economists take estimated that, as a consequence of this, students in the United States will resume their schooling in the autumn of 2020 with roughly lxx% of the learning gains relative to a typical schoolhouse year on boilerplate and that the learning gains might be even smaller in mathematics, amounting to just 50% (Kuhfeld and Tarasawa, 2020[7]). It is therefore of import for education policy-makers to understand which factors have prevented certain children from receiving sufficient education – among them, in add-on to the lack of infrastructure, the absence of acceptable preparation in schools and among teachers, likewise as, in some cases, the lack of curriculum guidelines. These elements accept also determined a swell variation, beyond schools and countries, in the quality of online learning, raising the business concern that disparities in educational outcomes across socioeconomic groups may be reinforced in the absence of corrective measures. For case, in the United States, over i‑third of students have been completely excluded from online learning, peculiarly in schools with big shares of low-income students, while aristocracy private schools experienced about full attendance (The Economist, 2020[8]; Khazan, 2020[9]). Similarly, evidence from England (United Kingdom) suggests that children from ameliorate-off families spent 30% more time on home learning than those from poorer families during the lockdown, and their parents reported feeling more than able to support them than socio-economically disadvantaged parents, while students from richer schools had admission to more than individualised resources (such equally online tutoring or chats with teachers) (IFS, 2020[x]) .

Further concerns relate to the fact that the effectiveness of online learning might have been hindered, in some cases, by the lack of basic digital skills among sure students and teachers, making them unprepared to adapt to the new situation then abruptly (OECD, 2020[11]). For example, descriptive evidence based on PISA 2018 shows that in that location were major differences across countries and socio-economic groups in the utilise of engineering for schoolwork before the pandemic among 15-year-olds, raising the business organisation that students who were less experienced might be those suffering the well-nigh from the shock caused by online learning.

Figure 1. Mean Index of ICT use outside of school for schoolwork, by socio-economic groups

Figure one indicates that, in almost all countries, students from depression socio-economic backgrounds made less frequent utilize of digital technologies compared to their peers from high socio-economic backgrounds before the pandemic in 2018. Disparities were peculiarly striking in Australia, Mexico, South Korea and the United States. Similar differences are observed between students from public and private schools, with the latter making more frequent use of digital technologies for schoolwork (OECD, Forthcoming[12]).

In addition, some teachers might also have struggled to adjust to online teaching and then abruptly due to a lack of adequate digital skills, peradventure contributing to a great heterogeneity in the quality of online teaching across schools. An antecedent outcome in the literature is in fact that the effectiveness of ICT for learning purposes depends considerably on the digital competencies of teachers and on whether technology is incorporated into pedagogical practices (OECD, 2010[13]) in an effective manner (see Box 1).

Box 1. Impact of digital learning on students' operation: What do nosotros know?

While in recent years governments of many countries accept been investing increasing resources to heighten the availability of digital devices across schools and households, some academic literature has tried to institute the mechanisms through which the employ of digital devices affects students' learning. What has emerged is that only providing access or using digital technologies does not automatically lead to better bookish results (Escueta et al., 2017[14]). For example, Angrist and Lavy (2002[15]) assessed the impact of Israel's Tomorrow-98 programme, which was launched in the mid-90s to provide schools with computers and teachers with training for computer-aided instruction. They document a negative relationship betwixt the programme-induced utilize of computers and maths scores. Similar findings come from the evaluation of a Dutch subsidy scheme for computers and software in schools, which had a negative impact on student achievement in language, arithmetic and data processing (Leuven et al., 2007[16]). Other studies have found negligible effects of ICT utilise. In 2008, a big scale experiment was launched in Italy to provide 156 classes with large grants to buy ICT: despite its huge toll – in the social club of EUR one 500 per pupil – the Cl@ssi2.0 program was constitute to have only a negligible effect on student achievements (Checchi, Rettore and Girardi, 2015[17]). Similarly, a field experiment involving the provision of gratis computers to low-income schoolchildren for home use in the US country of California did non improve educational outcomes (Fairlie and Robinson, 2013[18]). Such negative or negligible furnishings have been mainly attributed to uses of ICT that substitute for more constructive traditional didactics (Bulman and Fairlie, 2016[nineteen]): for instance, a study suggests that classroom computers are beneficial to students' achievements when used to look upwardly information but detrimental when used to practise skills and procedures (Falck, Mang and Woessmann, 2018[20]). Other studies illustrate that digital tools are beneficial to student learning when they are used to complement traditional teaching, e.m. extending study time and enhancing pupil motivation (Fleischer, 2012[21]; Peterson et al., 2018[22])

Based on this knowledge, efforts should exist made by governments and schoolhouse principals to support teachers in incorporating online tools effectively into their education practices, e.one thousand. by fostering teachers' pedagogies aimed at providing students with guidance and motivation towards active learning (Peterson et al., 2018[22]). Pedagogical practices should besides ensure that the use of digital technologies and online tools corresponds to learners' needs, prior competencies and digital literacy and teachers should act as mentors to guide students and aid them remain focused on the learning elements of tasks (OECD, 2019[23]).

Still, constructive pedagogical practices and ease with digital tools are necessary simply non sufficient conditions to ensure the effectiveness of online teaching and learning. Students' attitudes towards learning are strong drivers of their bookish achievements in regular times. Indeed, these may be crucial in sustaining students' motivation and active learning in times of home schooling. The following department of this brief focuses on how the development of positive attitudes towards learning can promote effective skills evolution in a digital environment. Information technology also identifies how positive learning attitudes can be all-time promoted past parental emotional back up and teacher enthusiasm.

Positive learning attitudes can improve performance at school and help students proceed their motivation when schools are closed

Recently, there has been increasing attention devoted to sustaining the development of different not-cognitive skills amongst students – due east.k. personality traits, goals and motivation – since they have been constitute to accept direct positive effects on several socio-economic outcomes, including wages, schooling and operation in achievement tests. Evidence indicates that these skills are malleable and amenable to policy intervention and classroom practice (Heckman et al., 2014[24]).

This section will focus on six learning attitudes:

students' ambition to larn and understand as much as possible (aggressive learning goals);
the relevance students attribute to school for their futurity working careers (value of school);
the sense of belonging to the school community (sense of belonging);
students' delivery to work difficult and to better performance (motivation to primary tasks);
students' ability to overcome difficulties on their own (self-efficacy);
the satisfaction students get from learning and reading (enjoyment of reading).

Evidence from the OECD Skills Outlook 2021 (OECD, Forthcoming[12]) shows that all the above-mentioned attitudes are particularly of import for students' success1 in that they are positively associated to their performance in reading, mathematics and scientific discipline. While many of these attitudes are developed at early stages of one'southward learning path, they are very likely to exist carried over in adulthood, making individuals more resilient to changing societies and more disposed to life-long learning (OECD, Forthcoming[12]; Tuckett and Field, 2016[25]). Learning attitudes are not just innate and their evolution is highly influenced by schooling, parental care and investments, with high gamble of major inequalities across socio-economic groups. Data bear witness, for instance, that in a vast majority of OECD countries, socio-economically advantaged students are significantly more likely to take ambitious learning goals as compared to disadvantaged students (Figure 2). This eventually affects also their proficiency and bookish operation.

Figure 2. Mean value of ambitious learning goals, for advantaged vs. disadvantaged students

While positive attitudes towards learning are important drivers of students' educational attainments during normal times, they are likely to be even more of import in the current context, because of the unique challenges posed past online learning: online learning requires students to rely on intrinsic motivation and self-directed learning. Developing stiff learning attitudes, for example, is central if pupils are to remain focused and motivated in difficult learning environments and could therefore be key to address the main difficulties that students may encounter over again in the near future, if a 2d moving ridge of school closures were to materialise earlier the wellness crisis has been fully addressed.

Figure 3 provides indication of the importance of attitudes for learning when this learning is mediated by digital technologies past comparing the association between a very frequent use of ICT for schoolwork and students' performance in reading among students who are, respectively, in the tiptop and bottom quartiles of each learning attitude. Results show that, amid students who make a very frequent use of ICT for schoolwork, those with stronger attitudes towards learning attain significantly higher proficiency levels than their peers with less positive attitudes.ii Further analyses shows that, while positive attitudes tend to beneficial to students' educational achievements in general, this positive association is even stronger when restricting the sample to loftier ICT users, suggesting that learning attitudes can exist key to contain technologies and online tools effectively into learning. When giving closer consideration to the role of dissimilar learning attitudes, data bear witness that students' dispositions to develop ambitious learning goals and to attribute high value to schoolhouse may be particularly important for maximining the issue of online learning. For instance, in Republic of ireland, amongst students making an extensive use of ICT for schoolwork, those with stiff ambitious learning goals score 32 points more in reading tests compared to their peers lacking aggressive goals.3

Figure 3. Association between learning attitudes and reading performance among students making intensive use of ICT outside of school for schoolwork

Attitudes and dispositions toward learning are of import drivers of students' educational achievements. In the context of online learning, they tin help students to comprise more than efficiently digital technologies and online tools into the learning process.

Families and teachers: Tin they provide constructive back up to digital learning?

Learning attitudes are rooted in the back up that students receive from teachers and families. Analyses based on PISA 2018 in the OECD Skills Outlook 2021 (OECD, Forthcoming[12]) shed light on the crucial role played by both teacher practices and parental emotional support as important drivers of the evolution of attitudes. Unlike forms of support tin can be incentivised and shaped by effective policy intervention, more often than not, but even more then in the extraordinary circumstances related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, it is important to understand which are the near suitable forms of support that teachers and families tin can embrace to sustain the digital learning procedure of children.

Figure 4. Association of learning attitudes and different forms of support by parents and teachers

Figure 4 shows that students display more than positive attitudes and dispositions towards learning when they benefit from more than parental emotional support.4 Parental emotional support matters for near attitudes and displays a stiff association with students' self-efficacy. More specifically, the forms of emotional support that are constitute to be about beneficial are when parents encourage their children to be confident and when they back up their children's educational efforts and achievements (OECD, Forthcoming[12]). On the teachers' side, the assay suggests that educational activity environments where teachers are able to convey enthusiasm towards the content of their instruction back up the development of positive learning attitudes in students, in item ambitious learning goals, motivation to main tasks, cocky-efficacy and enjoyment of reading. The importance of teacher enthusiasm equally a driving factor of educatee learning has been shown extensively in the literature: for instance, enthusiastic teachers help instill in their students positive subject-related affective experiences and a sense of the personal importance of the subject (Keller et al., 2014[26]) and they motivate and inspire students, increasing the productive time they spend on learning tasks (Keller et al., 2015[27]; Hoidn and Kärkkäinen, 2014[28]; Kunter et al., 2013[29]).

To requite an indication of the benefits brought well-nigh by parental and teachers' support to students' academic achievements, Figure 5 focusing on students making intensive use of ICT outside of school for schoolwork, compares performance in reading betwixt those who report to have received, respectively, very high and very low levels of support5 – both from families and from teachers. This testify, based on PISA 2018, shows that several forms of back up tin can be specially effective in enhancing educatee learning. For example, among loftier ICT users, pupils who receive very high emotional support from parents or whose teachers are more predisposed to support them and stimulate their reading tend to perform significantly better in all subjects assessed in PISA. Parental emotional support is particularly effective: for instance, in the Slovak Republic, students who utilize ICT very often and who receive very high support from families score on boilerplate 23 points more than their peers with less support from families. Receiving strong emotional back up from parents is similarly effective in some other countries, such every bit Austria and Slovenia.

Figure 5. Association between students' performance in reading and support from families and teachers among students making intensive use of ICT outside of school for schoolwork

This evidence suggests that parents tin can play a crucial role during home schooling such as ensuring that their children follow the curriculum and supporting their children emotionally to sustain their motivation and ambitious goals in a situation where they might easily be discouraged from learning apart, also due to the lack of peer effects. Parental involvement during this phase could significantly help students to address the main challenges posed by online learning, spurring their active and autonomous learning. However, many obstacles may hinder an effective engagement by parents: for example, they might struggle to engage in their children's schoolwork while combining their job obligations or other family obligations - a challenge that may exist especially astute for unmarried parents. Parents might also feel uncapable of supporting them due to lack of digital skills, familiarity with the content of their children's schoolwork or negative attitudes towards the material. For example, differences in educational levels of parents might requite rising to further inequalities in educational attainments and this should therefore be of peachy concern for policy-makers. A recent study from the netherlands shows, for instance, that less educated parents accept been less supportive of their children efforts during the lockdown and that this has been partly driven by the fact that they were feeling less capable to help them (Bol, 2020[30]). Parents with depression pedagogy might likewise hold negative attitudes towards learning themselves, thus underestimating the importance of their back up for their children'due south skill evolution and, as result, help them less than highly educated parents. Some other business organization is that gender differences in math attitudes and achievements tin can exist worsened during home schooling, when many children are supported mainly by their mothers in their schoolwork (Del Boca et al., 2020[31]; Farré and González, 2020[32]; Sevilla and Smith, 2020[33]). What is known is that many women take high levels of mathematics feet and previous research indicates that girls may be especially sensitive to internalising mathematics anxiety when exposed to it from female person adult figures (Beilock et al., 2010[34]). It is therefore crucial for governments and schools to take immediate actions in club to tackle these issues and foster parental involvement.

Together with families, teachers play a fundamental part in helping students to make a more benign use of digital learning. In particular, the about constructive practices chronicle to how teachers stimulate reading in students (eastward.m. the teacher poses questions that motivate students to participate actively or shows students how the information in texts builds on what they already know) likewise as more general instructor back up (due east.yard. when the teacher shows involvement in every student's learning, continues pedagogy until all the students understand and provides extra-help when students need it) and directed-instruction (e.chiliad. the teacher sets clear goals for students' learning, asks questions to bank check whether students understand the material, presents summary of previous classes at the beginning of each lesson). Similarly to parental emotional support, these instructor practices can significantly improve students' performance at school and might exist particularly relevant in this context, helping students to remain focused on their learning tasks and to keep their motivation and dispositions to learning. To requite an example, in Australia, amid students that rely extensively on ICT for schoolwork, those whose teachers are more able to stimulate their reading score on average 17 points more than their peers with lower support from teachers. Like results are observed for some other countries, such as Australia and Switzerland.

If learning attitudes are cardinal drivers of students' (online) learning achievements, the main challenge facing governments is therefore how to promote the development of those attitudes and how to support teachers and parents in strengthening them. Some countries have already implemented policies in this direction. These are discussed in the next department.

Policies to back up families and teachers

The analysis presented so far has highlighted the importance of both families and teachers in supporting students' learning and motivation, in regular times but even more than so during school closures. It is therefore important for governments to facilitate their effective engagement. Finding effective ways for working parents to provide childcare and support to their children in schoolwork while combining their jobs obligations is an important challenge that many governments are attempting to address. Most OECD countries have already put in place interventions in this direction by extending, for instance, family unit go out opportunities. In Slovenia working parents who are unable to reconcile work and family unit obligations are entitled to up to three-months paid leave, paid at 80% of their earnings by the government. Similarly, in Germany parents with children nether 12 years of historic period are entitled to six weeks paid leave, paid at 67% of earnings upwardly to a ceiling of EUR 2 016 per month. In the United States, according to the Families Starting time Coronavirus Response Human activity, parents with children nether eighteen years of age whose school has closed are entitled to upwards to 12 weeks paid family unit exit, paid at 2-thirds of earnings, up to a limit of USD 200 per day and USD 12 000 over the elapsing. Other countries accept put in identify similar provisions – e.g. Canada, French republic, Italy, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, etc. - and will continue them whilst schools remain closed. Measures of this sort are crucial to spur parental involvement in their children'south learning activities while preserving their jobs.

The provision of information to parents on how to effectively support their children's learning can also improve educational outcomes, both during a lockdown and in normal times. For example, Broad Open Schoolhouse, a web platform created in the United States, offers resources for educators and families for students from preschool to upper secondary education. Office of these resources aim to develop disciplinary technical skills as well as inventiveness, critical thinking or social-emotional skills, while other resources support families, e.g. past helping lower income families go devices and better broadband or by providing them with guidance almost social-emotional wellbeing. Beyond offering access to curated resources, the platform besides suggests a daily schedule to assist students and families have a skilful balance of activities (Vincent-Lancrin, 2020[35]).

Education systems can also aim to strengthen school-parent engagement in order to provide advisable information and guidance to parents on effective practices for supporting their children'southward learning. An example from Latvia is the Educational TV Aqueduct Tava Klase, which delivers high-quality educational material tailored for dissimilar age groups and provides a way for parents to connect with schools (van der Vlies, 2020[36]). Every bit an indicator of its success, a contempo survey of parents, students and teachers show that there is a potent positive clan betwixt the clarity of communications between schools and parents, and parents' confidence that their children would achieve their learning goals (Burns, 2020[37]).

Teachers also need support to rapidly adapt their education practices to distance learning, whether regular or ad hoc. In this respect, France has mobilised its network of local digital educational activity advisers to support the transition from face-to-face to afar learning. The network of digital education directorate has supported both teachers and school principals - by providing them with online grooming almost the availability and utilise of digital resource for pedagogical practice and past promoting didactics practices adapted to educational continuity and progressive school re-opening – and students – past working with local authorities to lend and deliver computers and learning worksheets to all students (Vincent-Lancrin, 2020[38]). Other countries have decided to complement schooling resources and teachers' efforts in delivering loftier-quality online classes by also providing home schooling broadcast on telly or social networks. Equally an example, in the United Kingdom, the BBC has started to collaborate with teachers and educational experts and provides daily lessons to pupils in twelvemonth 1 to 10, including videos and interactive activities aimed at keeping up students' motivation and at stimulating their socio-emotional skills (Van Lieshout, 2020[39]).

Conclusions

The electric current COVID-19 crisis has forced many countries to close schools, colleges and universities to halt the spread of the virus. Due to the long-lasting negative consequences that school closures would take on skill accumulation, many education systems moved rapidly online on an unprecedented scale. Since lockdowns may be introduced again in the future until constructive vaccines or therapeutics get available, it is of utmost importance for governments to reflect on the master difficulties that students, parents, teachers and schoolhouse principals have encountered in adapting to this stage of massive online learning and intervene to better harness the potential of online learning. For example, they should first aggrandize infrastructure, ensuring that nobody is excluded from online lessons, and support students and teachers to use online tools and technologies in an effective style.

Based on forthcoming analysis in the Skills Outlook 2021, this policy brief illustrates that students' attitudes and dispositions to learning, such as ambition or motivation, are of import drivers of their educational achievements and tin help ensure that online learning is as effective equally possible. In add-on, this brief showed that families and teachers play a crucial role in guiding children through the challenges of home learning: parents tin can provide emotional and learning support to their children, while teachers tin can human action as mentors, encouraging active learning and motivation and checking that nobody falls behind. Such interventions can considerably contribute to making online learning more effective. Given the crucial role that families and teachers play in the context of school closures, governments can spur their effective engagement by, for case, expanding family unit exit opportunities and by strengthening school-parents communication.

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[33] Sevilla, A. and S. Smith (2020), "Baby steps: The Gender Division of childcare afterwards COVID19", COVID Economics: Vetted and Real-Time Papers, Vol. 23.

[eight] The Economist (2020), Endmost schools for covid-19 does lifelong harm and widens inequality.

[25] Tuckett, A. and J. Field (2016), Factors and motivations affecting attitudes towards and propensity to learn through the life course, Government Part for Scientific discipline.

[i] UNESCO (2020), COVID-xix Educational Disruption and Response, https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse/.

[36] van der Vlies, R. (2020), Republic of latvia: Tava klase (Your class), OECD Publishing, Paris.

[39] Van Lieshout, Thousand. (2020), United Kingdom: BBC Bitesize, OECD Publishing, Paris.

[38] Vincent-Lancrin, S. (2020), France: Réseau de délégués académiques numériques (Network of digital education directorate), OECD Publishing, Paris.

[35] Vincent-Lancrin, S. (2020), "United States: Wide Open up School", Education continuity.

[6] Woessmann, L. et al. (2020), Die Schulkinder Die Zeit Der Schulschließungen Verbracht, Und Welche Bildungsmaßnahmen Befürworten Die Deutschen?.

Notes

← 1. Other previous show is contained for instance in (Behncke, 2009[41]), (Heckman, Stixrud and Urzua, 2006[40]).

← 2. Results hold when bookkeeping for students' form compared to modal grade in the country and type of programme (general, pre-vocational, vocational), mitigating the business organization that results might be driven by school characteristics.

← iii. Analogous results are found for the other subjects assessed in PISA, i.east. science and mathematics.

← iv. Parental emotional support is an index constructed in PISA grouping the following forms of support embraced by parents: parents support their children'due south educational efforts and achievements, they support their children when they are facing difficulties and they encourage them to be confident.

← five. High and low levels of back up have been defined based on the values taken by the indices of parental emotional support and teacher practices, constructed in PISA. More specifically, students receiving low/high back up are those in the bottom/top quartile of the corresponding index.

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